{"id":1942,"date":"2025-10-24T10:00:54","date_gmt":"2025-10-24T10:00:54","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/misterolsen.com\/?p=1942"},"modified":"2026-02-08T16:56:26","modified_gmt":"2026-02-08T16:56:26","slug":"1-dezembro-1640-vasconcelos-armario","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/www.misterolsen.com\/en\/1-dezembro-1640-vasconcelos-armario\/","title":{"rendered":"O Primeiro de Dezembro de 1640"},"content":{"rendered":"
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The coup of December 1, 1640, ended sixty years of Spanish rule. It began with farce and violence: Miguel de Vasconcelos, the hated Secretary of State, was killed in a closet and thrown out the window. This was a conservative aristocratic coup, not a popular revolution, that restored Portuguese independence.<\/em><\/p>\n\n\n\n

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There is an almost pathetic moment in the coup of December 1, 1640. Miguel de Vasconcelos, Secretary of State, the man who for years had collected exorbitant taxes on behalf of Madrid, hears the conspirators enter the Ribeira Palace and hides in a wardrobe. The forty Portuguese nobles quickly find him. They shoot him right there, still in the wardrobe, and then throw the corpse out the window into the Terreiro do Pa\u00e7o, where the furious crowd mutilates it. The body remained exposed until the following day.<\/strong>. It is with this combination of farce and violence that Portugal regains its independence after sixty years under the rule of the Spanish "Philips".<\/p>\n\n\n\n

This was not a popular revolution in the style of those that would come centuries later. It was a conservative aristocratic coup<\/strong>, planeado por fidalgos que queriam recuperar privil\u00e9gios perdidos, liderado por um duque hesitante que s\u00f3 aceitou a coroa porque a mulher o empurrou. Mas funcionou. E isso, contra todas as probabilidades, mudou a hist\u00f3ria ib\u00e9rica de forma irrevers\u00edvel.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Sixty years of broken promises.<\/h2>\n\n\n\n
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\"Retrato
Portrait of King Sebastian, by Crist\u00f3v\u00e3o de Morais (16th century). Google Arts & Culture | Museu Nacional de Arte Antiga<\/a>.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n\n\n\n
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It all begins in 1578, when King Sebastian disappears on the sands of Alc\u00e1cer Quibir without leaving an heir. What follows is a succession crisis that Philip II of Spain resolves with troops. On August 25, 1580<\/strong>, In the Battle of Alc\u00e2ntara, the Duke of Alba massacred the forces of the Prior of Crato\u2014an improvised army of peasants and freed slaves against Spanish veterans. Portugal lost its independence not because it wanted to lose it, but because the monarchy self-destructed and the Spanish alternative arrived with 20,000 soldiers.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n\n\n\n

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The Cortes of Tomar in 1581 attempted to soften the blow. Philip II, now also Philip I of Portugal, promised twenty-five chapters of guarantees: Portugal would remain legally separate from Spain, only Portuguese would hold administrative positions, the Cortes would always meet on Portuguese soil, and colonial trade would be exclusively Portuguese. It is a \u201cdual monarchy aeque principaliter<\/em>\u201d"Two crowns on the same head, but two distinct kingdoms.". It looked civilized on paper.<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

The problem is that paper can hold anything. Philip I still reasonably fulfills his promises during his reign. He lives in Portugal between 1581 and 1583, and creates the Council of Portugal in Madrid. But Philip II (Philip III of Spain) never visited Portugal during his entire reign.<\/strong> (1598\u20131621), and the Portuguese begin to be treated as inhabitants of a peripheral province. With Philip III (Philip IV of Spain) from 1621 onwards, the promises of Tomar become a dead letter. Portugal officially becomes what it had long been in practice: a source of revenue to finance Castilian wars.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n\n\n\n

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\"Filipe
Philip II of Spain, I of Portugal. (c. 1570). Art UK & Glasgow Life Museums<\/a>.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n
\"Cortes
Philip II recognized as King of Portugal by the Cortes of Tomar in 1581. Rijksmuseum, Netherlands \u2013 Public Domain<\/a>.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n\n\n\n

Olivares and the art of destroying an empire.<\/h2>\n\n\n\n
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Gaspar de Guzm\u00e1n, Count-Duke of Olivares, on horseback. Painting by Vel\u00e1zquez<\/strong>. Museo Nacional del Prado<\/a><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n\n\n\n
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Gaspar de Guzm\u00e1n, the Count-Duke of Olivares, became Prime Minister to Philip IV in 1621 with clear ideas:\u201cMuita regna, sed una lex<\/em>\u201d"\u2014 many kingdoms, but one law. In a secret memorandum of 1624, he writes to the king that he must \u201creduce those kingdoms of which Spain is composed to the style and laws of Castile, without any difference.\u201d There is no subtlety here. It is pure centralism, and Portugal is on the list of targets.".<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n\n\n\n

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In 1626 he launched the Arms Union<\/strong>, ...requiring all territories to contribute troops proportionally: Portugal was to provide 16,000 soldiers out of a total of 140,000. This was followed by taxes: the meia-anata (half the annual salary of civil servants), the state monopoly on salt, the water tax generalized throughout the kingdom, and increased excise taxes to 25%. All this allegedly to "defend Brazil from the Dutch," but the money went to wars in Flanders, Catalonia, and against France.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

However, the Portuguese empire crumbles. The Dutch captured Salvador da Bahia in 1624.<\/strong>, Pernambuco in 1630, Elmina in 1637, Angola in 1641, Malacca in 1641. The Portuguese commercial network\u2014the one that for a century dominated the Indian Ocean and the South Atlantic\u2014was being torn apart while Madrid demanded more taxes and more Portuguese soldiers to fight in Flanders. There is a perverse logic to this: the Iberian Union made Spain's enemies Portugal's enemies, but did not give Portugal the means to defend itself.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n\n\n\n

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Kingdom \/ Territory<\/th>Soldier Quota<\/th><\/tr><\/thead>
Crown of Castile and the Indies<\/td>44.000<\/td><\/tr>
Kingdom of Portugal<\/td>16.000<\/td><\/tr>
Principality of Catalonia<\/td>16.000<\/td><\/tr>
Kingdom of Naples<\/td>16.000<\/td><\/tr>
Spanish Netherlands (Flanders)<\/td>12.000<\/td><\/tr>
Kingdom of Aragon<\/td>10.000<\/td><\/tr>
Duchy of Milan<\/td>8.000<\/td><\/tr>
Kingdom of Valencia<\/td>6.000<\/td><\/tr>
Kingdom of Sicily<\/td>6.000<\/td><\/tr>
Mediterranean and Atlantic Islands<\/td>6.000<\/td><\/tr><\/tbody>
TOTAL:<\/strong><\/td>140.000<\/strong><\/td><\/tr><\/tfoot><\/table>
Table showing the division of soldier quotas proposed by Olivares for the Union of Arms in 1626.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n\n\n\n

The revolt that began with a madman named Manuelinho.<\/h2>\n\n\n\n

On August 21, 1637<\/strong>, \u00c9vora is in turmoil. The price of wheat has tripled in three years, there is famine, and there are new taxes. The crowd storms the magistrate's house, burns everything in the square, attacks the councilors' houses, destroys the slaughterhouse scales, invades the prison, and frees all the prisoners. The orders are signed "Manuelinho"\u2014the name of a known local madman, a strategy to protect the true organizers. The revolt spreads to Portel, Faro, Tavira, Set\u00fabal, and Porto. It lasts seven months.<\/strong>.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

\"Revolta
Illustration of the popular revolt that took place in \u00c9vora on August 12, 1637, also known as the "Manuelinho Revolt". Porto Municipal Archive<\/a>.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n

Castilian troops suppressed it in March 1638. But something changed. The Portuguese nobility realized there was a popular will to resist. The discontent wasn't just from nobles resentful of their loss of influence\u2014there was genuine anger in the streets. And in 1640, when Catalonia revolted in the \u201cBody of Blood<\/em>\u201d"(June 7), killing the Spanish viceroy, Madrid is desperate. It demands more taxes, more troops, and personal service from the Portuguese nobles to suppress the Catalans.". It's the extra request.<\/strong>. In October 1640, the conspiracy was ripe for the taking.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

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Illustration of the Catalan revolt of Corpus Christi<\/em> of 1640, which became known as the \u201cBody of Blood<\/em>\u201c".<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n

The main characters: a duke who didn't want to be king.<\/h2>\n\n\n\n

D. Jo\u00e3o, the eighth Duke of Braganza, has everything to lead a revolution, except ambition. He is the richest nobleman in Portugal, a direct descendant of D. Manuel I through his grandmother D. Catarina. The dynastic legitimacy exists. But Jo\u00e3o hesitates, delays, refuses to commit himself. He is "a modest man without particular ambitions for the crown." However, his wife "pushes him.".<\/p>\n\n\n\n

D. Luisa de Gusm\u00e3o<\/strong> \u2014 and here is one of the most delightful historical ironies \u2014 she is Spanish. Eldest daughter of the Duke of Medina Sidonia, one of the most powerful houses in Spain. She marries John in 1633. But when the time comes, she is the one who has the determination that her husband lacks. Legend attributes to her the phrase: "I would rather be queen for a day than duchess for life." It may be apocryphal, but it captures the essence. Without Luisa, there probably wouldn't be a December 1st.<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

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\"Dom
Dom Jo\u00e3o, Duke of Braganza, acclaimed as Dom Jo\u00e3o IV, King of Portugal, on December 1, 1640, after the insurrection that restored the Portuguese monarchy. Wikimedia Commons<\/a>.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n\n\n\n
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\"Dona
Luisa Maria Francisca de Guzm\u00e1n y Sandoval (1613-1666), Queen Consort of Portugal, by virtue of her marriage to D. Jo\u00e3o, Duke of Bragan\u00e7a (later, D. Jo\u00e3o IV of Portugal). Wikimedia Commons<\/a>.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n\n\n\n
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\"Margarida
Margaret of Savoy, Duchess of Mantua. Viceroy of Portugal during the Restoration period, being the last ruler of Portugal on behalf of the Philippine dynasty. Wikimedia Commons<\/a>.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n\n\n\n
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Miguel de Vasconcellos, Secretary of State (Prime Minister) to Margaret of Savoy. Portrait generated with AI from the drawing published in... Illustrated Daily of December 1, 1890<\/a>.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n\n\n\n

On the other side, there is Miguel de Vasconcelos, the bureaucrat who collects unpopular taxes and concentrates all Portuguese hatred. And the Duchess of Mantua, viceroy, granddaughter of Philip II, chosen precisely because she is a woman\u2014easier to control, Olivares thought. Both will be swept away in hours.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

The intellectual architecture of the coup stems from John Pinto Ribeiro<\/strong>, a lawyer trained in Coimbra, administrator of the Braganza family's businesses in Lisbon. He is the one who weaves the network of conspirators, known as the Forty Conspirators. They meet at the Almeida Palace in Rossio. On October 12, 1640<\/strong>, They decide to proceed. On November 30th, John IV confirms the date: December 1st, at nine in the morning.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

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Jo\u00e3o Pinto Ribeiro (1590\u20131649), Portuguese judge, and one of the Forty Conspirators of the Restoration of Independence (1640). National Library of Portugal<\/a>.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n\n\n\n
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Lithograph depicting the meeting of the Forty Conspirators. Lithograph from Nacional Editora<\/strong>.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n\n\n\n
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Anatomy of a coup: from 9:15 am to surrender<\/h2>\n\n\n\n

On the morning of December 1st, the Forty left the Almeida Palace and crossed the streets of Baixa. They entered the Ribeira Palace at 9:15 am, "thirsty for blood" according to contemporary accounts. The target was clear: Vasconcelos. He tried to hide in a cupboard\u2014the pathetic moment I mentioned at the beginning. They discovered him by the rustling of the papers, shot him while he was still inside the cupboard, then threw the corpse out the window. Down below, the enraged crowd mutilated the body, which remained exposed until the following day.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

The Duchess of Mantua is surrounded in her chambers and imprisoned by Ant\u00e3o Vaz de Almada. She offers no resistance\u2014she has no way to resist. The Castle of S\u00e3o Jorge surrenders on December 2nd without a fight.<\/strong>. Within a few hours, the coup is complete.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

\"Quatro
Illustration of the four crucial moments of the coup of December 1, 1640. A \u2013 Death of Miguel de Vasconcellos; B \u2013 Entry of the Duke of Braganza into Lisbon; C \u2013 Acclamation of D. Jo\u00e3o, Duke of Braganza, as King of Portugal; D \u2013 Coronation of Dom Jo\u00e3o IV. In the center, an illustration of Jo\u00e3o IV, King of Portugal. Royal Collection Trust<\/a>.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n

On the afternoon of January 1st, John was acclaimed King John IV of Portugal in Terreiro do Pa\u00e7o. The Archbishop of Lisbon, Rodrigo da Cunha, organized a thanksgiving ceremony at the Cathedral. During the procession, it is said that the right arm of a crucifix came loose\u2014interpreted as a divine sign. It may have been propaganda, but it worked. On December 6th<\/strong>, John enters Lisbon and is received with jubilation. On December 15th he is formally enthroned. The restoration is complete. Portugal once again has a Portuguese king.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

A twenty-eight-year war without decisive battles.<\/h2>\n\n\n\n

The Restoration War (1640\u20131668) is strange: it lasts almost three decades, but has only five major pitched battles. The rest are "raids"\u2014cavalry raids, burned fields, stolen livestock. Portugal adopts a fundamentally defensive strategy: it doesn't need to conquer, only to resist. This is a crucial difference.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

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Cavalry Combat (1644) illustrating the violence of battles of the time. Museo Nacional del Prado<\/a>.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n

Spain faces the problem that all great powers in decline face: too many fronts. The Thirty Years' War (until 1648), the war with France (until 1659), the Catalan revolt (until 1652), the war in the Netherlands. When Madrid tries to concentrate forces in Portugal, there is always another crisis demanding attention. In 1643<\/strong>, In the Battle of Rocroi, France crushed the Spanish army, ending Spanish dominance on the European battlefields. In 1647, Philip IV declared bankruptcy. These were not conditions for reconquering Portugal.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Montijo (May 26, 1644)<\/strong> This is the first significant Portuguese victory. Matias de Albuquerque, a veteran of the wars against the Dutch in Brazil, defeats the Spanish with 6,000 infantry and 1,100 cavalry. It proves that Portugal can defend itself. But the truly decisive battle comes later.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

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Cavalry clash. Museo Nacional del Prado<\/a>.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n

Lines of Elvas (January 14, 1659)<\/strong>The Spanish besiege Elvas with 19,000 men under the command of Luis de Haro. They intend to march on Lisbon. Ant\u00f3nio Lu\u00eds de Meneses brings a relief army of only 11,000 men, attacks the siege lines and breaks them. Of the 19,000 Spaniards, only 5,300 escape to Badajoz. It is a Spanish humiliation. Meneses earns the title of Marquis of Marialva.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Ameixial (June 8, 1663)<\/strong>John of Austria, illegitimate son of Philip IV, commands 20,000 men who capture \u00c9vora. The Portuguese, under Sancho Manuel de Vilhena and the German mercenary Schomberg, counter-attack with 17,000. A crushing Portuguese victory. They capture all the Spanish artillery. John of Austria retreats to Badajoz, his military career over. This battle convinces London and Paris that Portugal can win.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

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Descriptive engraving of the Battle of Ameixal, dated to the 17th century (between 1663 and 1670). National Library of Portugal<\/a>.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n

Montes Claros (June 17, 1665)<\/strong>The last Spanish attempt. The Marquis of Caracena brings 23,000 men (many German and Italian mercenaries). Marialva and Schomberg command about 30,000 Portuguese. Nine hours of intense combat. The Spanish lose 4,000 dead, 6,000 prisoners, and 14 artillery pieces. The Portuguese: 700 men. It's the end.<\/strong>. Spain realizes it cannot reconquer Portugal by force of arms.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Diplomacy: marriages, colonies, and betrayals<\/h2>\n\n\n\n

Portuguese diplomacy after 1640 is an exercise in brutal realism. Portugal needs allies against Spain, but the allies have their own interests. Treaty of Paris (1641)<\/strong> The treaty with France lasted until 1659, when Cardinal Mazarin broke it. In the Treaty of the Pyrenees (1659), France abandoned Portugal and made peace with Madrid, even recognizing Philip IV as the legitimate king of Portugal. It was a diplomatic betrayal that left Lisbon isolated.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

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Portrait of Philip IV, King of Spain (1621-1665) and King of Portugal (1621-1640). Museo Nacional del Prado<\/a>.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n\n\n\n
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Portrait of Cardinal Jules de Mazarin. POP: the platform hears the heritage<\/a>.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n\n\n\n

England becomes the salvation, but the price is high. Catherine of Braganza<\/strong>, daughter of John IV, marries Charles II in 1661. The Portuguese dowry is colossal: Bombay and Tangier, two million Portuguese crowns (\u00a3300,000 \u2014 about half the English treasury), full commercial rights in Brazil and the East Indies. England sends 2,000 infantry soldiers and 500 cavalrymen.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

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\"Catarina
Portrait of Catherine of Braganza (c. 1660-1661), who would become Queen Consort of England, Scotland, and Ireland between 1662 and 1685. National Portrait Gallery<\/a>.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n\n\n\n
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Portrait of Charles (c. 1653), the future Charles II of England, Scotland and Ireland, between 1660 and 1685. The Cleveland Museum of Art<\/a>.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n\n\n\n

Bombay becomes the jewel in the British crown in India. Tangier is evacuated in 1684 under Moorish pressure. The financial debt burdens the Portuguese treasury for fifty years. But the alliance is decisive. The English brigade under Schomberg, many of them veterans of Cromwell's army whom Charles II wanted out of England, is decisive in Ameixial and Montes Claros.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

With the Dutch, there was the Treaty of The Hague (1661): Portugal recovered Brazil, but ceded Ceylon and the Moluccas, paying eight million florins in compensation. This formalized the collapse of the Portuguese Asian empire. Malacca fell in 1641, Ceylon was completely conquered in 1658, and the Malabar Coast in 1663. What remained in Asia were bases in Goa, Macau, and Timor\u2014shadows of its former splendor.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

The Treaty of Lisbon and Spanish recognition<\/h2>\n\n\n\n

On February 13, 1668<\/strong>, Spain finally recognizes Portuguese independence in the Treaty of Lisbon. The mediation is English, carried out by Edward Montagu, Earl of Sandwich. Queen Mariana of Austria, regent for her minor son Charles II, signs on behalf of Spain. Prince Regent Pedro (the future Pedro II), who had ousted his incapacitated brother Afonso VI, signs on behalf of Portugal.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

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\"Manuscrito
Manuscripts of the 1668 Peace Treaty between Portugal and Spain. National Archives of Torre do Tombo<\/a>.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n\n\n\n
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The terms are simple: Spain recognizes the House of Braganza, Portugal retains all colonial possessions. except Ceuta<\/strong>, which never recognized the dynasty. A thirty-year ceasefire was established. Technically, the war was over. But rebuilding Iberian dialogue proved more difficult than signing treaties.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

The legacy: an identity forged in resistance.<\/h2>\n\n\n\n

What remains of 1640? First, the confirmation that sixty years were not enough for Spain to integrate Portugal. The promises of Tomar were broken so systematically that they generated resistance. There is a lesson here about empires and autonomy: paper can hold everything, but real policies create real resentment.<\/p>\n\n\n\n